Biography of Sol LeWitt, Conceptual Artist

Biography of Sol LeWitt, Conceptual Artist Solomon Sol LeWitt (September 9, 1928–April 8, 2007) was an American artist regarded as a pioneer in both the Conceptual and Minimalist Art movements. LeWitt stated that ideas, not physical creations, are the substance of art. He developed instructions for wall drawings that are still being created to this day. Fast Facts: Sol LeWitt Occupation: ArtistArtistic Movements: Conceptual and Minimalist ArtBorn: September 9, 1928 in Hartford, ConnecticutDied: April 8, 2007 in New York City, New YorkEducation: Syracuse University, School of Visual ArtsSelected Works: Lines in Four Directions (1985), Wall Drawing #652 (1990), 9 Towers (2007)Notable Quote: The idea becomes the machine that makes the art. Early Life and Education Born in Hartford, Connecticut, Sol LeWitt grew up in a family of Russian Jewish immigrants. His father died when Sol was only six years old. With encouragement from his mother, he attended art classes at the Wadsworth Atheneum in Hartford, Connecticut. LeWitt showed a talent for creating humorous drawings. Most children in LeWitts neighborhood took industrial jobs, but he pursued art to rebel against expectations. Although he wanted to skip college, Sol compromised with his mother and attended Syracuse University. While in college, he won a $1,000 award for his work creating lithographs. The grant helped fund a trip to Europe in 1949 where LeWitt studied the work of the Old Masters. Drafted into the United States Army during the Korean War in 1951, Sol LeWitt served in the Special Services and created posters among other duties. He visited many shrines and temples in both Korea and Japan. LeWitt returned to New York in 1953, set up his first art studio, and began working as a design intern at Seventeen magazine. He also attended classes at the School of Visual Arts in Manhattan. LeWitt joined I.M. Peis architectural firm in 1955 as a graphic designer. There he began developing his idea that art is a concept or a blueprint for creation, and not necessarily the finished work- meaning that the physical work could be executed by someone other than the artist. Sol Lewitt in New York (1969). Jack Robinson / Getty Images After taking an entry-level job as a clerk at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1960, Sol LeWitt had firsthand exposure to the landmark 1960 exhibit Sixteen Americans. Among the featured artists were Jasper Johns, Robert Rauschenberg, and Frank Stella. Structures Showing independence from the tradition of sculpture in the arts, LeWitt called his three-dimensional works Structures. Initially, he created closed wooden objects lacquered by hand. However, in the mid-1960s, he decided it was necessary to reveal the internal structure leaving only a skeletal form. In 1969, LeWitt began creating his structures on a large scale often constructed out of fabricated aluminum or steel. X with Columns (1996). Raymond Boyd / Michael Ochs Archives / Getty Images In the 1980s, LeWitt began creating large public structures out of stacked cinder blocks. He started working with concrete in 1985 creating the cement Cube for a park in Basel, Switzerland. Beginning in 1990, he created multiple variations on a tower of concrete blocks for locations around the world. One of LeWitts final structures was the 2007 design for 9 Towers to be constructed in Sweden out of over 1,000 light-colored bricks. Wall Drawings In 1968, LeWitt began developing guidelines and diagrams for making works of art by drawing directly on the wall. At first, they used a graphite pencil, then crayon, colored pencil, and later India ink, acrylic paint, and other materials. Many of LeWitts wall drawings were executed by other people using his guidelines. LeWitt stated that the wall drawings are never the same, as everyone understands the instructions differently and draws lines uniquely. Even after his death, LeWitt wall drawings are still being produced. Many are created for exhibitions and destroyed once the exhibition is over. John Hogan creating a Sol Lewitt line drawing. Andy Kropa / Getty Images A characteristic example of LeWitts wall drawing instructions is as follows: Draw all combinations of two lines crossing, placed at random, using arcs from corners and sides, straight, not straight, and broken lines. This example comes from Wall Drawing #122, executed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts. After moving to Spoleto, Italy in the late 1970s, LeWitt began creating wall drawings with crayon and other brightly colored materials. He credited the change to his exposure to Italian frescoes. In 2005, LeWitt began developing a series of scribbled wall drawings. As with his other works, the instructions for creation are highly specific. The scribbles are done with six different densities that ultimately imply a three-dimensional work. Major Exhibitions New Yorks John Daniels gallery mounted Sol LeWitts first solo show in 1965. In 1966, he took part in the Primary Structures exhibition at the Jewish Museum of New York. It was a defining event for Minimalist Art. The Museum of Modern Art in New York launched a Sol LeWitt retrospective in 1978. Many art critics embraced LeWitt for the first time following the exhibition. The 1992 Sol LeWitt Drawings 1958-1992 exhibit began at Gemeentemuseum in The Hague Netherlands before traveling to museums around the world for the next three years. A major LeWitt retrospective by the San Francisco Musem of Modern Art in 2000 traveled to Chicago and New York. Sol Lewitt Line Drawing #84 (2011). Andy Kropa / Getty Images A massive exhibition titled Sol LeWitt: A Wall Drawing Retrospective- a collaborative project of Yale University, the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art, and Williams College- opened in 2008, a year after the artists death. It includes almost an acre of wall space devoted to more than 105 drawings created to LeWitts specifications. Sixty-five artists and students executed the works. Housed in a 27,000-square-foot historic mill building, the exhibition will remain open for viewing for 25 years. Legacy and Influence LeWitts methods of using lines, shapes, blocks, and other simple elements made him a key figure in Minimalist Art. However, his primary legacy is his vital role in the development of Conceptual Art. He believed that concepts and ideas are the substance of art, not the final piece that is created. He also insisted that art is not about anything in particular. These ideas distinguished LeWitt from the romantic and emotional work of the abstract expressionists. LeWitts 1967 essay Paragraphs on Conceptual Art, published in ArtForum, is a defining statement for the movement; in it, he wrote, The idea becomes the machine that makes the art. Source Cross, Susan, and Denise Markonish. Sol LeWitt: 100 Views. Yale University Press, 2009.

Arthur Zimmermann - Profile

Arthur Zimmermann - Profile Arthur Zimmerman worked as the German Foreign Secretary during 1916-17 (mid World War 1), during which time he sent the Zimmermann Note / Telegram, a document whose clumsy diplomacy (trying to trigger a Mexican invasion of the US) contributed to America’s entry into the war and earned Zimmerman lasting infamy as a hapless failure. Born 5 October 1864, Died 6 June 1940. Early Career Born in 1864 Marggrabowa, East Prussia (now called Olecko and in Poland), Arthur Zimmermann followed a career in the German civil service, moving to the diplomatic branch in 1905. By 1913 he had a major role thanks partly to the Foreign Secretary, Gottlieb von Jagow, who left much of the face to face negotiations and meetings to Zimmermann. Indeed, Arthur was acting as Foreign Secretary alongside German Emperor Wilhelm II and Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg in 1914 when the decision to support Austria-Hungary against Serbia, and thus Russia, and thus enter into the First World War, was taken. Zimmermann himself drafted the telegram giving notice of Germanys commitment. Soon most of Europe was fighting each other, and hundreds of thousands were being killed. Germany, in the middle of it all, managed to stay afloat. Arguments Over Submarine Strategy Jagow remained Foreign Secretary until the middle of 1916, when he resigned in protest at the governments decision to resume unrestricted submarine warfare, which was likely to provoke a US declaration of war against Germany. This style of warfare involved using submarines to attack any and all shipping they found, whether or not it appeared to be from neutral nations (although American was using an odd sort of neutrality at the best of times), and one major target was US civilian and shipping craft. The US had warned earlier in the war that such tactics might induce it to fight Germany.Zimmermann was appointed his replacement on November 25, thanks partly to his talents, but mainly to his complete support of the military rulers – Hindenburg and Ludendorff – and the submarine policy, which was now going to going ahead. Reacting to the threat from America, Zimmermann proposed an alliance with both Mexico and Japan to create a ground war on US soil. However, the telegram of instructions he sent to his Mexican ambassador in March 1917 was intercepted by the British (not entirely honourably, but there was   a war on) and passed onto the US for maximum effect: it became known as the Zimmermann Note, severely embarrassed Germany and contributed to the American publics support for war. They were, as you might imagine, angered by Germany trying to bring bloodshed to their own country, and were now keener on exporting some of their own in return. A Lack of Denials For reasons that still baffle political spokesmen, Zimmermann publicly admitted to the telegram’s authenticity. Zimmermann remained Foreign Secretary for a few more months, until he retired from government in the August of 1917 (largely because there wasnt a job for him anymore). He lived until 1940 and died with Germany again at war, his career overshadowed by one short communication.

Database protection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Database protection - Essay Example Compilations of data or other material, whether in machine readable or other form, which by reason of the selection or arrangement of their contents constitute intellectual creations shall be protected as such (â€Å"Agreement on Trade-Related.†). The petition filed to the WTO is basically a court hearing, with a judge, lawyers, plaintiff, and defendant. The only difference is that not all of the players in this court case are Americans, but from various countries belonging to the WTO. Whatever the judge decides, the defendant’s country, or America in this case, is left to uphold. If it was proven that the database had been accessed illegally and copies distributed, then America would enforce the penalty, ranging from prison to restitution. Most of the time restitution is the scenario. Let it be noted that only twenty-five cases of intellectual property theft has been petitioned to the WTO (â€Å"Agreement on Trade-Related.†). Another means for the database owner would be to file suit either in American federal or state court where the defendant is from. America has copyright laws for intellectual property. Because of the WTO, every WTO member must have current laws protecting intellectual property, America is no exception. By suing through the American justice system, the database owner could have an injunction placed on the product from the database immediately. American laws would also punish the hacker, if they were found guilty, by restitution or jail time. The two options above all depend on the database owner and where they live. If from a developed country like Russia or one of the European states, it is very likely justice will be done and their database will be protected. However, if from an underdeveloped country, like Cambodia or an African state the database owner will lose their property. One because their country does not have the existing WTO treaty or their country already has sanctions. Two the database owner would not have the